Association for Behavior Analysis International

Punishment is an important behavioral-regulation mechanism relevant for learning to stop engaging in maladaptive behavior and plays an important role in both natural and programmed contingencies. Punishment procedures are effective in reducing the behavior of several species, in both basic and applied settings. However, there is a relative paucity of research on punishment. The present symposium will present recent studies on punishment. The presentations will discuss the effects of punishment on both human and non-human subjects. The first presentation will consist of a review of studies using hot air blast as a punisher with rats and will discuss its effectiveness as an aversive stimulus to be used with non-human animals. The second presentation will focus on the effects of punishment on choice when only one of two available responses is punished with escalating shock intensities and will discuss the implication of the results for quantitative models of punishment. Lastly, the third presentation will review the literature regarding the quantitative assessment of differences in loss aversion between healthy controls and individuals with psychiatric disorder and will discuss how a more accurate evaluation of loss aversion in these clinical populations can improve diagnostic clarity and assessment of treatment efficacy.

Understanding the basic principles of punishment is essential for a complete analysis of behavior. Most of the behavioral principles of punishment are based on studies with electric shock. To what extent are these principles valid to other aversive stimuli? Since 2005 the Hot Air Blast (HAB) has been used as a novel aversive stimulus in punishment experiments. The purpose of this presentation is to describe the HAB equipment and review the relevant results obtained so far. The experiments took place in an adapted conditioning chamber, with white rats as subjects, using 5s of HAB produced by a blow dryer as punishment. HAB has been effective in suppressing behavior even after 10 sessions of punishment demonstrating low habituation; its effectiveness depends on the stimulus compound (heat + air blast + sound); suppression is greater when the HAB is contingent on a response than when applied independently; it accelerates the discrimination learning when applied to the delta stimulus condition in comparison to the traditional reinforcement + extinction contingencies for the discriminative and delta stimulus respectively. Based on these experiments, we argue the HAB is an effective aversive stimulus to test the generality of the punishment principles, previously established with electric shock.

The present study investigated the effects of escalating punishment intensity and repeated exposure to punishment on choice between punished and unpunished responses in five Long Evans rats. Equal reinforcement rates were programmed for both punished and unpunished responses on a concurrent schedule during both baseline and punishment phases. During punishment, escalating shock intensities were superimposed on the schedule of reinforcement for the punished response, and the punished response produced 50-ms foot shock with p = .50. Baseline and punishment phases were replicated three more times. Greater behavior suppression and a larger shift in allocation toward the unpunished response resulted from increases in shock intensity. Additionally, repeated exposure to punishment generated greater suppression of the punished response without additional increases in the unpunished response. These results suggest that changes in behavior allocation during punishment are a function of punishment severity and that repeated exposure to punishment can enhance such effects. A better understanding of the effects of punishment severity on the relative values of the options in a concurrent schedule could have important implications for quantitative models of punishment.

Our Ethics Code guides us to promote an ethical culture in work environments (7.01) and to not engage in discriminatory practices (1.05d). As behavior analysts we have the capacity to promote better work environments for marginalized groups that face discrimination because of their sexual orientation, gender discrimination, or skin colour. Factors that are known to be impacted include: recruitment and retention, participation numbers and representation of women and black, indigenous people of colour (BIPOC) in management positions, compensation for equal work and equal pay, microaggressions, and organizational policies and hiring practices that tend to favor biases towards white cis-gendered men (Cirincione-Ulezi, 2020; Iwata & Lent, 1984; Johns, 2013; Li et al., 2019; and Odum, 2000). Behaviour analytic interventions centred around processes highlighting equality, aligning organizational values amongst employees, as well as diversity appreciation will be discussed.

Supervisors and business owners

The field of behaviour analysis has seen recent exponential growth however we are surrounded by punishment, inequality, injustice, and anti-science rhetoric. For our science to realize its far-reaching impact, we must conceptualize a society, like Walden 2, as our terminal goal and shape societal responses to that achievement. This panel discussion will discuss current systemic problems within culture and how we, as behaviour analysts, can establish systems that are rooted in data and behavioural science. Topics that will be discussed include utopian behaviour society, perspective taking, and compassion.

Advance ~ BCBAs and BCBA-Ds. Complex concepts that go beyond introductory literature or the course sequence.

The current COVID-19 pandemic has claimed the lives of over 1.5 million people across the world and have changed the lifestyle of humanity, possibly, for years to come. In this context, specific behaviors that had received minimal or no attention in the past have been moved up the social validity scale overnight. In this symposium we will evaluate various interventions addressing some key COVID-related behaviors. Online teaching and internet use has exploded during the pandemic. The first study looks at the potential role of social media in facilitating academic performance during online university-level courses. There are essentially no experimental analyses in the literature evaluating whether social media engagement (in the context of closed Facebook learning groups) could be an important channel for multi-component behavioral interventions. The second study presents a telehealth mask-wearing training program for children with autism presenting mask-induced problem behavior. The study evaluates a caregiver-delivered intervention among an international sample of participants from Belgium, India, Mexico, and Costa Rica. In the final study we turn to face touching. Face touching is thought to account for tens or hundreds of thousands of Sars-CoV-2 infections across the world due to physical contact with contaminated surfaces. It has been suggested that face touching, a high frequency behavior, may limit the protective role of hand washing, which occurs inevitably at lower rates. In this third presentation we evaluate the suppressive effect of contingent vibrotactile stimulation on face touching in a group of typical adults as they go about their daily lives. In addition to the treatment evaluation side of the study, it also provided an opportunity to conduct a thorough quantitative and descriptive analysis of face touching in ecologically relevant settings. Overall, these studies give a perspective of the diversity of behavioral applications that can be brought to bear in order to mitigate the effects of the current pandemic.

Students, practitioners and applied researchers.

SARS-CoV-2 is the virus causing COVID-19 and is spread through close person-to-person contact. The use of face masks has been described as an important strategy in the combat to contain and slow down its transmission while a vaccine is not made widely available. We evaluated the effects of telehealth training for caregivers to teach mask wearing to children with ASD. Six participants with a history of challenging behavior associated with mask wearing were recruited from different parts of the world, and trained using a combination of graduated exposure, shaping and contingent reinforcement. By the end of the intervention all participants wore a face mask for a target period of 10 min without exhibiting challenging behavior, and generalized the skill to a novel mask and a community setting. The findings support previous tolerance training treatment evaluations in children with developmental disability exhibiting resistance to healthcare routines. Clinical recommendations and areas for future research are discussed.

Facial contact behavior is a high frequency, high duration behavior that contributes to the transmission of communicable diseases by interaction with contaminated surfaces. Studies indicate that the Sars-CoV-2 virus remains viable for hours on surfaces such as paper, plastic, or metals. Hand-face contact has a long history among mammals and primates and is likely maintained by sensory consequences. It is estimated that thousands of infections may be mediated by hand contact with contaminated surfaces with pathogens being subsequently transferred to mucous membranes by hand contact with the mouth, nose, or eyes. We used contingent vibrotactile stimulation as an intervention to reduce hand-face contacts in ecological settings. Ten consecutively recruited adults wore one or two bracelets that delivered vibrotactile stimuli following face touching. Stimuli were delivered through Bluetooth-connected devices that were calibrated for each participant. We also evaluated the social validity of the intervention and how various environmental events were related to the level of face touching. In addition, the study provides an opportunity to discuss the quantitative characteristics of face touching. The results indicated that the face touching can be reduced considerably with this simple intervention.

The reemergence of extinguished behavior is broadly referred to as relapse. Relapse can be especially concerning in the treatment of problem behavior, as relapse can lead to eventual treatment failure. Two forms of relapse particularly relevant in the treatment of problem behavior are renewal and resurgence. Renewal is the reemergence of an extinguished response following a context change. Resurgence is the reemergence of an extinguished response following a worsening of reinforcement conditions for an alternative response. Mitigating relapse requires both advancing our understanding of the phenomena (often achieved through basic research) and further identification of treatment variables and their potential interactions (often achieved through applied research). The symposium is comprised of two basic and two applied investigations focused on the advanced understanding of relapse and relevant treatment variables and interactions. Findings from these investigations, areas for future research, and clinical implications will be discussed.

Target audience includes practitioners and applied researchers with a BCBA or BCBA-D, as well as basic researchers with at least a graduate degree. It is also appropriate for psychologists who conduct behavioral assessments and treatments.

The reemergence of problem behavior after extinction during context changes is referred to as renewal. Estimates for the prevalence of renewal for problem behavior maintained by social reinforcement indicate that renewal occurs in approximately 42% of observed context changes (i.e., location or person; Muething et al., 2019). However, when examining the reemergence of automatically reinforced problem behavior during the same context changes, extinction may not be an active component of treatment, and therefore any increase in problem behavior cannot be classified as renewal. Rather, contextual control may better explain this phenomenon. In the absence of extinction, context changes could result in increases in the automatically reinforced problem behavior based on different learning histories in different contexts. For example, returning to a home context where the problem behavior was previously observed may result in an increase. This study examined 38 context changes in a consecutive controlled case-series design (Hagopian, Rooker, Jessel, & DeLeon, 2013) for children with automatically reinforced problem behavior in an intensive outpatient program. Reemergence of problem behavior during those context changes was found in 12 of the examined changes (31%).

An increase in the frequency of previously extinguished behavior following a change to the context in which extinction took place is termed “renewal.” In ABA renewal, for example, a response that is reinforced in one context (Context A) during baseline and extinguished in a second context (Context B) during treatment may renew if stimuli associated with Context A are represented. The present experiment assessed whether fading from Context B to Context A during treatment reduces renewal of rats’ lever pressing when Context A is represented. Specific visual, olfactory, and tactile stimuli were associated with Contexts A and B. For one group, the stimuli that signaled Context A were faded systematically into the rats’ chambers across treatment sessions while Context-B stimuli were faded out simultaneously. A second group experienced the same fading procedure but in the opposite order: Context-A stimuli were faded out of the chambers across sessions of treatment while Context-B stimuli were faded in. A third group experienced a standard ABA renewal preparation as described above as a control procedure. Data collection is ongoing. Findings from this research may have implications for treatment strategies aimed at reducing renewal of problematic human behavior during context changes following treatment.

Observational learning is important in a child’s development because it allows behavior to be changed by the natural environment without experiencing consequences directly. This symposium will present a review of observational learning research with children with autism as well as cover two recent studies conducted with children with and without developmental disabilities. Both studies focused on the complex repertoire of responding to social contingencies applied to the behavior of others. In the first study, observed contingencies were applied to incorrect responses first and were shifted to correct responses and in the second study initially non-preferred stimuli were established as conditioned reinforcers via observational learning.

Intermediate

Observational learning is important in a child’s development because it allows behavior to be changed by the natural environment without experiencing consequences directly. Given the deficits in this repertoire often observed in children with autism spectrum disorder, effective procedures for teaching observational learning are needed as part of comprehensive behavioral intervention programs. The purpose of the current review was to provide a systematic, quantitative analysis of studies that evaluated procedures for teaching observational learning to children with autism spectrum disorder. We identified 12 studies meeting our inclusion criteria and coded them across 17 parameters. An analysis of this body of research is provided, along with recommendations for clinicians and directions for future research.

We tested the effects of an observational procedure on the establishment of conditioned reinforcement for observing books using multiple probe design across dyads with 4 preschoolers. All of the participants could textually respond to kindergarten or first-grade level high-frequency words, but observing books did not function as a preferred activity for them. The independent variable was the establishment of conditioned reinforcement for books using an observational procedure. During the intervention, the participants were paired into dyads. They observed a peer confederate reading books while the confederate received consistent social approvals from the experimenter; the participants did not receive social attention and were denied access to books during the intervention. The dependent variables were the rate of acquisition of textual responses, and the duration participants spent observing printed words. Results in the first experiment showed 3 participants had an accelerated rate of acquisition of textual responses after books functioned as conditioned reinforcers. Two participants spent a longer time observing printed words during the post-intervention sessions.

Behavioral principles explain all operant behavior, and sports and exercise has been studied within our science. Individual exercise routines, collegiate and professional sports performance, and enhancement of coaching effectiveness has been empirically studied within our science. The proposed symposium will further that research by providing theoretical as well as research-based presentations on this topic. The matching law, as applied to sports and exercise, will be described. A study investigating the effect of an intervention to increase recess play in the public schools will be described as well. Lastly, a component analysis of the TAGTeach form of instruction - as applied to teaching volleyball skills - will be presented.

The importance of sports in America is reiterated annually on the first Sunday of February when more viewers tune in for the Super Bowl than those who vote in our presidential election (Schlanger, 2015). Sports play an integral role in our society and for the past two decades behavior analysts have utilized the matching law to analyze this cultural phenomenon. The matching law has traditionally been applied as a quantitative analysis tool in the experimental analysis of behavior; however, applications of the generalized matching equation (GME) have been translated to athletic performance. GME has been utilized to predict various operant choices in sports (e.g., shot type or play type) at both the individual and team level. In addition to further demonstrating the relevance of applied behavioral science outside of the classroom or laboratory, this review provides a summary of the application and utility of the matching law in sports, discusses limitations of the current literature, and provides recommendations for future research.

The philosophy and associated methodologies of applied behavior analysis (ABA) have been applied across several contexts and populations including, but not limited to, addiction (e.g., Silverman et al., 2008), autism (e.g., Leaf et al., 2017), education (e.g., Keller, 1968), gerontology (e.g., Dwyer-Moore & Dixon, 2007), healthcare (e.g., Friman et al., 1986), human safety (e.g., Geller, 2005), intellectual disabilities (e.g., Passage et al., 2012), juvenile delinquency (e.g., Serna et al., 1986), space (e.g., Brady, 2007), sports (e.g., Luiselli & Reed, 2011), and sustainability (e.g., Bekker et al., 2010). In each of the contexts and populations with which ABA philosophy and methodologies have been applied, improvements have been observed. This is perhaps best exemplified with respect to ABA-based interventions designed for autistics/individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This is not to say that the application of methodologies based upon ABA has been without its faults. However, despite its faults, there have been countless success. The faults and the success should be discussed within the profession. The purpose of this panel is to highlight the many successes of ABA as it relates to interventions designed for autistics/individuals diagnosed with ASD while still acknowledging its faults and the need for improvement.

This collection of applied and descriptive research studies push our science in China and Italy. The first paper titled All For One And One For All used behavioral observation techniques to determine socially valid performance criterion for attending behaviors in typically developing students during group instruction. The second paper used functional behavior assessment and a conditioning procedure to replace stereotype with toy with a student having autism in an international primary school. The third paper outlines current dimensions of applied behavior analysis research in China. The fourth paper tested the effects of a different intensity CABAS®-based intervention packages using an alternating (ABACA) treatment design for 9 children diagnosed with Autism, aged 2 to 6 years old in Italy.

Designed for Supervisors, Directors, and Administrators

The present study used functional behavior assessment and a treatment package including conditioning of toy play with a student with autism in an international primary school. The functional behavior assessment confirmed that the behaviors were being maintained through automatic reinforcement. The procedure was a partial replication from research conducted with adults and preschool students. Our student was 11 years old and had a long history of stereotypy behaviors and a limited community of reinforcers. This study tested for the external validity of the treatment package.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) was introduced into Mainland China at the beginning of the 21st century as a direct result of the rise of autism spectrum disorder. The following decades can roughly be divided into two phases in terms of the development of ABA in China. Phase one was the time period with a focus on dissemination of ABA practice in China and it lasted from 2000 to 2009. In phase two, which lasted from 2010 to the current date, initial research on ABA emerged in China while dissemination of ABA practice continued and accelerated. The objective of this presentation is to critically evaluate ABA studies conducted by Chinese researchers. For this purpose, the author conducted a systematic search for literature on ABA published by Chinese scholars. In this presentation, the author will use seven ABA dimensions (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to measure the quality of the ABA literature and present results from quantitative analysis and qualitative evaluation of empirical studies published by Chinese ABA researchers. The author will also attempt to explain the unique feature of ABA research published by Chinese scholars by analyzing relevant cultural contingencies. Based on these descriptions and analyses, the author will make recommendations for the future development of ABA research in China.

We tested the effects of a different intensity CABAS®-based intervention packages using an alternating (ABACA) treatment design for 9 children diagnosed with Autism, aged 2 to 6 years old. The study was conducted in a learning and research centre in Italy prior and during the COVID-19 Pandemic, and is still ongoing. The obligation to stop the CABAS® intervention created an opportunity to change the treatment frequency while keeping the treatment integrity for all participants, and provide the experimenters with an opportunity to collect data and compare them on the optimal treatment intensity. Condition A constituted high educational intensity where each participant received 1:1 intervention for 12 hours a week, while Condition B constituted 1:1 intervention for 3 hours a week (during the first lockdown), and during Condition C, intervention was delivered for 6 hours a week (during the second lockdown).The dependent variables in the study were the changes in participant’s ADOS-2 and CARS-2 scores prior and after each treatment change, and participants number of Learn Units to Criterion rate. The early results showed a significant difference between before and after the low-frequency package was implemented, for the total scores and each sub-test of both instruments. So far, results suggest that normative tests, together with individual graphs’analysis, can help differentiate between treatment effectiveness and efficiency for each child. Further research is needed in order to make more generalized conclusions into the optimal intensity of intervention, especially in countries, such as Italy, where children with Autism can’t attend special schools or have insurance-covered intensive treatments.

The COVID-19 global pandemic of 2020 and the ensuing emergency guidelines had potential to limit the delivery of essential ABA-based Autism services. While literature outside of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) has demonstrated efficacy of remote, video-conference modality for medical care, (i.e. telehealth or telepractice), replicable models of ABA-based telehealth were limited in ABA literature prior to 2020. In response to the public health crisis, a protocol modification assessment (PMA) and treatment selection matrix for modifying ABA programs for direct telehealth was developed and published in an emergency issue of Behavior Analysis in Practice (Rodriguez, 2020). The first panelist will present a model for training and implementation of the PMA in a multi-site provider organization, including confidence self-assessment results from the participating behavior analysts; the second panelist will present client outcomes in the form of pre- and post-implementation assessment change scores. A third panelist will share an innovative applied research approach to modification of a well-known curriculum (PEAK), in which the materials were transformed into an interactive video game that allowed for remote, highly engaging implementation. The panelists will offer guidance for future implementation and evaluation.

Participants should be familiar with the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (BACB(R) 2014, including considerations for competence to practice and efficacy of services); a review of literature related to telehealth service delivery (e.g. Ferguson et al., 2019); and PEAK Curriculum (Dixon, 2008) and its applications (Belisle, 2018) will offer participants context for engagement.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, roughly 1400 clients were transitioned to telehealth ABA services across 50+ regions of a multi-site provider organization. Many clients’ services were shifted within 1-2 weeks of the emergency orders; some were transitioned within days. While the modality of treatment offered clear benefits (i.e. continuity of care; provisioning of essential services without the risk of viral transmission), telehealth ABA has not been evaluated widely. Questions of efficacy are central to ethical compliance and provision of evidence-based, medically necessary treatment; therefore, clinical outcomes are urgently needed in order to determine whether funders will continue to adopt telehealth once the pandemic ends. This presenter will show an initial view of aggregated outcomes data, using pre- and post-assessment assessment change scores. The Vineland 3 is the primary measure of clinical outcomes in this presentation; the author will make recommendations for complementary measures to be used in future analysis.

The sudden emergence and ongoing uncertainty of COVID-19 led many behavioral health organizations to reassess how they deliver applied behavior analysis (ABA) services as well as the skills that employees need to effectively execute their job functions. This reassessment for how services would be delivered resulted in ABA sessions during the COVID-19 pandemic that looked significantly different than ABA sessions delivered pre-COVID-19. In this symposium, we will share the results of three studies that measured the impact of COVID-19 on the delivery of ABA services. The first presenter will discuss the importance of compassion and empathy as a soft skill for behavior analysts, and how those skills can be taught using Behavior Skills Training. The second talk discusses parental acceptance of Telehealth to replace in-person ABA therapy. The final talk discusses the impact of COVID-19 on ABA practitioner job satisfaction and their perception of care quality. All presenters will discuss the implications of their findings and future steps.

Practicing behavior analysts or patient's/caregivers of those who receive ABA services.

Addressing issues of disparity in access to treatment for children with autism has gained increased attention. COVID-19 has been documented to disproportionally affect disenfranchised populations in both its direct health effects and have a greater impact on the upstream social determinants of health such as financial well-being, access to education, etc. The purpose of this retrospective study was to assess known factors that affect autism treatment (e.g. severity of symptomology, behavioral excesses) and care-providers acceptance or rejection of ABA telehealth services at the onset of COVID-19. Rejection of telehealth resulted in the absence of any behavior analytic services to patients. This study reports on an initial convenience sample (∼100 patients) of a larger sample size (∼1500 patients) from a service provider in Southern California. A t-test for the convenience sample found significance for one variable but not others. Additional measures are being conducted and a randomized sample of the patient population is being analyzed. If particular variables are found to be significant in the randomized sample, interventions may be tailored to decrease the disparity and ensure more children do not experience a disruption in service should telehealth be required as a treatment modality.

The sudden emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has dealt a severe blow to economies, businesses, and workers nationwide – including behavior analysis workers. During the pandemic, we administered a survey to all BACB certificants to identify the variables that best predicted perceived COVID-19-related change in service quality and the impact of COVID-19 on job status. Using regression analyses, we found that perceived negative change in ABA service quality was influenced most by low confidence using Telehealth technologies, changes in the setting of service delivery, and a higher number of cancelled sessions. Our findings also indicate that COVID had a greater impact on job status for respondents who were younger, had lower certification status (i.e., RBT, BCaBA), had lower positions in the company (e.g., frontline staff), and for those who worked in home and clinical settings. In short, this presentation highlights who was impacted most by COVID-19 and in what ways. Understanding this information opens the door to field-wide collaboration to develop and disseminate effective strategies to mitigate the negative impact of future events that have far-reaching economic impact.

The source of motivation for the time, energy, and resources poured into basic research is the assumption that what is observed in the contrived circumstances of the laboratory will be relevant and applicable to problems of importance in the “real world.” In psychology, the problems deemed to be of sufficient importance for the allocation of resources to basic research are primarily related to human behavior. However, much basic research in psychology is conducted with nonhuman animals. Modeling human phenomena with nonhumans is fraught with threats to validity that are frequently overlooked or ignored in the work of researchers in the fields of behavioral genetics, neuroscience, and even the experimental analysis of behavior. The thesis of this presentation is that the most significant act of “translation” from basic nonhuman research to human affairs occurs at the level of theory when modeling phenomena for study. The importance of theory in this regard will be considered in the context of several current nonhuman models of human psychological phenomena.

Behavior Science’s three interrelated domains of conceptual, experimental, and applied work represents an earnest effort by adherents of this science to participate in and work toward, a comprehensive science of behavior. Though the lion’s share of conceptual and experimental work occurs in the context of universities there are efforts in the applied domain to remain oriented to, and participate in, the refinement of both experimental and conceptual work. This paper provides examples of these efforts as well as outlines a framework for interested applied behavior scientists to adopt a balance of the three pillars of behavior science. The benefits of adopting such a framework are exemplified with particular attention paid to advantages when communicating with non-technical audiences.

When behavioral services are utilized to reduce problem behavior, psychotropic medication is also often prescribed by attending physicians. When a comorbidity is present, coordinating services between disciplines can present special challenges. This presentation will describe the need to reduce confounds between different treatment modalities, and present some techniques to reduce those confounds while evaluating and promoting ongoing treatment effectiveness. We will review several of the medications that are most commonly used to address problem behavior, describe some of the most common side effects as well as secondary behavioral effects that can impact treatment planning and documentation. We will discuss some common symptoms of various comorbidities, list steps for data collection, and suggest techniques on how to most effectively report and utilize data in coordination with both medical and non-medical professionals. Finally we will discuss the ethical requirement to closely coordinate ABA and medical services, and explore some of the related issues that are likely to arise in clinical practice.

The target audience should have as prerequisite skills knowledge autism spectrum disorder, behavioral service delivery, and behavior intervention plan.

Acceptance and commitment training (ACT) is an approach to language and cognition that is growing in traction across several practitioners inside and outside of the field of behavior analysis. ACT has been seen to be effective in interacting with levels of stress, burnout, and psychological flexibility. Given this, there has been limited research demonstrating ACT in a variety of clinical settings. Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) and clients alike may experience distress and burnout. The following three talks will discuss three different implementations of ACT-based interventions across three different clinical applications. The first talk will discuss the potential value in an online-based ACT intervention targeted for behavior technicians and their levels of burnout and overt levels of values-based actions. The second talk will discuss an application of a two-day ACT-based workshop designed to interact with three BCBAs and their indirect levels of psychological flexibility and burnout, weekly reported values-based actions, and performance on a values based check in system. The third talk will discuss the application of an ACT-based approach to rigid habit following in an individual with a dual diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Intermediate

Within the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA), behavior technicians can be described as a highly valuable employee within their organization due to their direct one to one work with clients. Over time, a behavior technician’s level of burnout may increase due to the prolonged emotional exhaustion that accompanies the work. One possible intervention to incorporate into the workplace is acceptance and commitment training (ACT). ACT is an evidence-based intervention that focuses on enhancing six processes (i.e., self-as-context, values, committed action, contacting the present moment, defusion and acceptance) to increase psychological flexibility. While there is research on ACT in various modalities, one emerging method of delivery is through online-based modules. The present study evaluates an online-based ACT intervention targeted to behavior technicians while simultaneously teaching them to engage in overt behavior directly tied to their values. It is hypothesized that the online acceptance and commitment training will be effective in influencing a behavior technician’s perception of burnout, increasing psychological flexibility, and stabilizing and or increasing values-based behaviors.

Acceptance and commitment training (ACT) has been growing in acceptability within the scope of behavior analysis (Enoch, & Nicholson, 2020). Since the start of the current COVID-related pandemic, researchers have moved to include programs related to psychological flexibility to mitigate possible effects the current shelter in place may have on our wellbeing and potential feelings of stress (Fieberg, Gould, Ming, Watson, 2020). Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) are often described as those who have stressful jobs that could lead to stress and burnout. ACT has been shown to mitigate workplace stress and increase levels of psychological flexibility (Pingo, Dixon, & Paliliunas, 2019). The following study explored the potential effect a two-day ACT workshop may have on the weekly overt values-based behaviors a BCBA reports to have completed, indirect measures associated with psychological flexibility (AAQ, CAQ-8) and stress, and performance on a check-in system designed to help aid BCBAs to check in with the colleagues they supervise. Using a multiple baseline design across three BCBAs, the results suggest the ACT workshop affected overt weekly reported values-based actions. Results also suggest the workshop was successful in improving performance on the check-in checklist. Further implications and suggestions will be discussed.

The majority of current behavior analysts are working within the autism spectrum disorder (ASD) population (BACB, 2020). ASD is often comorbid with other diagnoses including obsessive and compulsive disorder (OCD) (Lewin, Wood, Gunderson, Murphy, & Storch, 2011). Behavior analysts may not have experience with individuals who have this comorbid presentation(Broadhead, Quigley, Wilczynski, 2018). Research demonstrating the application of behavior analytic treatment of behaviors associated with comorbid diagnoses are necessary in the development of our field’s overall utility. In this paper, we will demonstrate the efficacy of a treatment package utilizing acceptance and commitment training (ACT), and mindfulness-based training for the reduction of compulsive behaviors in an 11-year-old individual diagnosed with OCD and ASD. Sessions were conducted via telehealth for 2 hours each day, 3 days per week, across 4 consecutive months. A reversal design was utilized to test for treatment efficacy. In baseline, the participant was engaged in a variety of compulsive behavior in the bathroom for up to 9 hours per day. Results indicated that the treatment package was effective in the reduction of the duration of engagement in compulsive behaviors. Overall duration of engagement dropped from 9 hours to 45 minutes. Results, implications, and overall social validity will be discussed.

Data on participant demographics (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status) can be used to evaluate the existence of treatment disparities and other correlations between the impact of an intervention and sociopolitical location, yet these data are seldom reported in behavior-analytic studies. To date, no review has been conducted evaluating the reporting of demographic variables within the subfield of organizational behavior management (OBM). OBM interventions often involve multiple participants across levels of an organization, posing unique considerations for reporting demographic variables and potentially identifiable information in accordance with an organization’s preference for disclosure and human resource policies. Interventions in industrial/organizational psychology may encounter similar barriers to reporting demographic variables. Therefore, we reviewed articles published in the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM) and the Journal of Applied Psychology from 2015 to 2019 to evaluate recent trends in the reporting of demographic variables. All articles that included participants and presented data (i.e., both applied and laboratory research; N = 79) were included for review and were coded based on the setting, design, and reported demographic variables. The value of reporting demographic variables in OBM and suggestions for future reporting will be discussed.

Early diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are critical to maximizing early development (Brasher & Stapel-Wax, 2020). Prior evidence suggests that some communities within the ASD population are underserved and experience reduced access and quality of services (Bishop-Fitzpatrick & Kind, 2017). The purpose of the current study was to complete a retrospective clinical file review to identify possible disparities in access to therapeutic services. We scored demographic variables (e.g., age at time of initial contact, sex, race/ethnicity) and reported access to therapy services (e.g., applied behavior analysis, speech language pathology). We conducted visual and statistical analyses to determine correlations between demographic variables and reported access to therapy services. We discuss our findings and possible future directions for evaluating disparities to accessing therapy services in the ASD community.

As recent outcry emerged upon the murder of George Floyd, following Ahmaud Arberry, Breonna Taylor, and countless others, it became apparent that the world needed to significantly analyze core values and principles to address issues of systemic racism. The field of behavior analysis is no exception. While some major behavior analytic organizations have previously developed diversity policies, most chose to release statements specifically addressing racism and diversity in the wake of Mr. Floyd’s murder. Too, while there is a growing body of literature regarding cultural humility and diversity in behavior analysis, these discussions have not yet been informed by a collection of voices from the field. While the statements and literature are undoubtedly well-intentioned, they may lack actionable items and stakeholder input that research suggests are critical in sustainable development of societal and political processes. The purpose of this study therefore was twofold: to analyze responses from major behavior analytic and psychological institutions, and to analyze survey responses of clinicians and researchers on understanding demographic concepts related to diversity. Finally, an analysis of stakeholder feedback on how to increase diversity within the field of behavior analysis was conducted. We urge the field to use these data to better inform action items we can engage in to increase diversity and equity at all levels.

The transition from high school to higher education presents a variety of challenges and pitfalls for many students both with and without autism. Being a successful college student often necessitates that an individual be a versatile and fluent communicator able to collaborate with peers and faculty across a wide range of settings and contexts. Failure to develop the ability to effectively communicate and collaborate with others while in college can have long-term implications far beyond the classroom which can include social isolation and unemployment. Students across the nation routinely report that they do not feel as though they are well prepared for success in college. To date, there has been a limited focus within the behavior analytic research on developing approaches for effective support for college students with and without ASD. This symposium provides several models of explicit coaching and instructional strategies related to being a successful communicator across settings and contexts within a college setting.

Practitioners working with adolescents and adults. Educators/Administrators working in higher education. Prerequisite Skills: Strong foundation of understanding of basic behavior analytic concepts. Familiar with behavior analytic terminology. Familiarity with common behavior analytic research designs and ability to quickly interpret data presented via tables and figures.

An increasing number of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are pursuing postsecondary education at 4-year institutions. Research has shown that typically developing (TD) college students often experience stress and difficulties in transitioning to higher education, and the extent of these difficulties tend to be exacerbated by core characteristics of ASD among college students diagnosed with ASD. Moreover, many higher institutions are beginning to push for a transformation of instructional methods from the conventional lecture approach to an active learning approach, which often involves group discussions and activities with peers. In this context, weaknesses in social and communication skills may create additional barriers for students with ASD if they are frequently required to initiate and respond to social exchanges and collaborate with peers. To identify the needs of college students with ASD in active learning college classes, we conducted an ecobehavioral assessment study through direct observations of students with ASD and TD students to examine their instructional responding in active learning classes. Preliminary results from age- and IQ-matched ASD (n = 6) and TD (n = 17) samples indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in measures of instructional responding. Implications of study findings will be discussed.

Adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience challenges securing employment, which may partially explain overall underemployment or unemployment in this population. One of the first steps to obtaining employment is participating in a job interview. However, social communication deficits may interfere with an individual with ASD’s ability to participate in a job interview. The current study evaluated the use of behavioral skills training delivered via remote instruction to teach interview skills to four college students diagnosed with ASD. Results showed overall improvement during interviews as well as post-training generalization probes with a career development expert. These data suggest that an individualized approach to training may be an effective strategy to help adults with ASD successfully navigate job interviews.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have difficulty engaging in conversations with same-age peers. Deficits in conversation skills can hinder one’s ability to sustain friendships and may lead to social isolation. Research has shown that technology-based interventions can improve conversation skills and reduce the social stigmatization of individualized interventions. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of telecoaching and online instructional modules on conversation skills for four high school and college students with ASD. A component analysis was conducted to determine the critical components of the intervention package. Results showed that telecoaching was associated with the most significant improvements in conversation behavior for all participants. Future directions and recommendations for clinicians are discussed.

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly altered all aspects of our lives in unprecedented ways. Many ABA agencies and schools across the nation had to rapidly transition from a primarily in-person service delivery model to telehealth or distance learning. And yet the research on telehealth and distance learning with individuals with autism is limited to say the least. All four presentations in this symposium contribute to a much-needed literature base on this topic. The first two studies investigate the use of telehealth for the delivery of direct behavior analytic services. Study one uses an adapted alternating treatment design to compare the effectiveness of telehealth versus in-person services when teaching intraverbals. Study two uses semi-structured interviews to gather social validity information directly from the consumers of ABA delivered via telehealth. The next two studies investigate the use of distance learning for students with severe developmental disabilities. Study three compares the data on students’ IEP goals from before and after the transition to distance learning. Study four uses surveys to gather social validity information from parents and educators on the use of distance learning with this population. Results highlight both the potential applications and barriers of online service delivery models of behavior analytic services.

Service providers in educational or ABA agency settings.

Schools across the country and nation closed their doors during the COVID-19 pandemic. These measures impacted all students, as schools, educators, and families grappled with the realities of transitioning to distance learning platforms. The research on distance learning is still in its early phases. However, almost no research exists on educating students with severe disabilities and high behavioral needs using this technology. The present study collected survey data from students’ families and their educators on the feasibility and effectiveness of distance learning programs when working with students with severe developmental disabilities and high behavioral needs. Survey responses were collected from 40 parents, 11 teachers, and 59 paraprofessionals from a nonpublic school located in Southern California. Results indicated that parents and educators had generally neutral attitudes towards distance learning, although educators agreed that their students were obtaining educational benefits during distance learning. These findings contribute to a much needed literature base on distance learning and individuals with significant developmental delays and severe behavioral needs.

With the international COVID-19 pandemic, our nation's educational system was significantly impacted. Students in all educational settings were thrown into distance learning and taken out of their brick and mortar classrooms. While some research has been done on distance learning models, little has been done on distance learning with individuals with significant developmental delays and severe behavioral needs. Therefore, this population was left in uncharted waters as educators worked to develop curriculum to meet this population’s needs. The present study examined the effects of this transition on a significantly impacted special education population. Data was gathered by looking at students’ IEP goal progress prior to and after the transition to distance learning. A total of 419 goals across 84 students were categorized as “No Change”, “Regression”, or “Progress”. Analyses revealed that students maintained about half of the skills addressed in their IEPs and made progress on an additional quarter of their IEP goals. Students demonstrated decreased performance on the remaining quarter of their IEP goals. Findings contribute to a much needed literature base on the impact that distance learning has on students with special needs. Future work is needed to determine best practices for distance learning with this population.

Telehealth services within Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) have broadly increased in use. The current literature on telehealth shows the effectiveness of parent and staff training conducted through telehealth, yet there is no research evaluating direct services provided to children with Autism via telehealth. Given telehealth’s recent expansion, it is important to evaluate whether services provided via telehealth are as effective as the typically used in-person model. In this study, an adapted alternating treatment design is used to compare the effectiveness of direct behavior analytic services delivered through telehealth to direct behavior analytic services delivered in-person when teaching responding to intraverbal questions. Participants with a diagnosis of Autism that currently receive in-home ABA services and met criteria to receive direct instruction via telehealth were recruited for this study. Preliminary results show that telehealth is equally effective as in-person services. This is significant as it supports the ongoing use of telehealth for behavior analytic services, which expands access to those individuals living in more rural communities with limited access to services.

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the landscape of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) services has shifted dramatically. Telehealth services are being provided at a much higher rate than at any point in the past. While there is an extensive body of social validity research for direct ABA services, there is currently a paucity of research with regard to the social validity of telehealth services, particularly with respect to social validity data collected directly from the recipients of telehealth ABA services. This study collected social validity data in the form of a semi-structured interview directly from individuals receiving ABA services via telehealth. Participants are expected to include approximately 20 children, aged 8-18 with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. Preliminary results indicate that a subset of clients prefer telehealth to in-person services, telehealth is easy to access, the switch to telehealth has generally not affected progress on goals, and that there may be a preference for a combination of telehealth and in-person services if that should become available in the future. The data from this study inform the delivery of ABA services via telehealth and shed light on the acceptability of this service delivery model for a subset of ABA recipients.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy/Training (ACT) is expanding within behavior analysis. As such, behavior analysts are discovering how to grow their scope of competence to include ACT as well as how to effectively train others in its use. Moreover, behavior analysts are incorporating ACT into traditional behavior analytic methods to provide compassionate service delivery in areas such as parent training. The first presentation provides a qualitative review on the perspectives and recommendations from ACT experts regarding behavior analysts’ scope of competence within ACT. The second presentation presents data on the use of behavioral skills training (BST), along with self-practice, to teach behavior analysts ACT skills using the ACT Matrix. The third presentation examines the integration of ACT into behavior parent training (BPT) on parental implementation of behavior strategies. The fourth presentation explores how the use of ACT within the field of behavior analysis can bring humanity and compassion to research and service delivery.

The target audience is those who have an interest in acceptance and commitment therapy/training (ACT) and ways to incorporate it in behavior analytic work with competency and compassion. Audience members should have a basic understand of private events, rule-governed behavior, and derived relational responding.

In response to the increasing interest in Acceptance and Commitment Training (ACT), the scope of practice in ACT for applied behavior analysis (ABA) practitioners has been discussed, and some guidelines have been suggested. The next step is to discuss the scope of competence for board certified behavior analysts® (BCBAs®) to incorporate ACT in their practices as part of their behavior analytic interventions in a careful, appropriate, and scientific manner. The current study compiled and analyzed 13 ACT experts’ opinions and recommendations on this topic through a qualitative data analysis of semi-structured interviews. Three major themes emerged: (1) understanding what ACT is, (2) required knowledge, skills, and training, and (3) establishing standards, guidelines, and measurements of competency. During the presentation, these topics will be discussed to suggest a future framework for developing standards, guidelines, measurements of competency criteria, and required training in ACT for behavior analysts. Some suggestions for behavior analysts to start gaining ACT competency and for the field to develop such future framework as a collaborative effort will be made.

The world is changing rapidly, global culture is in flux, and yet centuries-old inequities persist. The field of applied behavior analysis (ABA) is situated squarely within the purpose of serving humanity. This is evident to us, as the vast majority of researchers and practitioners in ABA have dedicated our careers to helping empower families living with autism and other developmental disabilities. While this dedication to serving humanity seems obvious to us in the field of ABA, it seems it has not been entirely obvious to others that we lead with our hearts. What’s more, there is a growing yearning inside the field of ABA to connect with other humans in more complete and fundamental ways. This presentation will make the case for embracing compassion in the field of ABA and discuss ways to use Acceptance and Commitment Training (ACT) to empower us to live compassion in our daily research and practice.

Applied behavior analysts are often responsible to work with individuals with autism and their caregivers to provide effective and empirically supported interventions and supervise the staff that provide the direct services. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is an intervention behavior analysts can access as an effective treatment tool to teach skills aimed at increasing psychological flexibility for clients, caregivers, and staff. Additionally, self-practice has the potential to decrease stress and potential burnout for behavior analysts. Using a delayed multiple baseline design, the current research examined the efficacy of individual behavioral skills training (BST) for teaching behavior analysts ACT skills and intervention using the ACT Matrix through teleconferencing. The use of self-practice was an added component to the learning. Results indicated that all participants (a) acquired new ACT skills, (b) learned to use the ACT Matrix as a form of case conceptualization, and (c) found self-practice positively added to the learning experience.

The concept of the behavioral cusp was introduced in the late 1990’s. Since then, the concept has been widely accepted as fundamental to an understanding of behavioral development. Despite widespread use of the term within behavioral parlance, exploration of the concept and its extensions within the literature or experimental validation of the concept and its extensions have been somewhat circumscribed. There remains considerable potential to build more momentum in the development of the concept as well as expanding its versatility and overall utilization. The first presentation in this symposium will review the behavioral cusp literature. The second presentation will provide an overview of social cusps, an extension of behavioral cusps. A discussion reflecting on the concept will follow by an originator of behavioral cusp concept. This symposium is meant to lead into a separately scheduled panel discussion following the symposium, with panelists further discussing the past, present, and future of behavioral cusps.

Prerequisites include familiarity with behavior analytic terminology and concepts as well as single-case research design methodology.

Rosales-Ruiz and Baer (1996) introduced the concept of the “behavioral cusp,” or a “an interaction, or complex of interactions, that enables access to new reinforcers, new contingencies, and new communities of reinforcement and contingencies - and thus to new behaviors” (p. 165), extending the reach of behavior analysis into the developmental domain. Since the pioneering chapter and subsequent article were published (Rosales-Ruiz & Baer, 1997), several formative works have explored the behavioral cusp concept, expanding its application to novel domains as well as extending the concept itself. To date, no systematic reviews have been conducted examining the use of the cusp in the literature. Thus, the purpose of this presentation is to (a) broadly examine the ways in which the term has been used in the literature via systematic review, (b) identify and offer interpretations of trends in term use, and (c) discuss possible future uses that could benefit the field.

Social validity, as a component of the curricular decision-making process, provides a framework for behavior analysts to ensure that the skills targeted for acquisition are as important as the extent to which our instructional interventions are evidence-based and technically precise. Unfortunately, given the continued poor outcomes for adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), (e.g., Roux, et al, 2015) it would seem as though social validity may rarely be a part of that decision-making process. Among the reasons for this may be more readily available professional reinforcement for technical precision than for the selection of socially valid targets for intervention; a greater response effort required to target more socially valid targets in less controlled community environments, and; quite simply, the fact that many behavior analysts are tasked with, primarily, the reduction of challenging behavior and not the acquisition of socially valid targets. This panel will provide an overview of the relevant practice challenges associated with a focus on social validity across both the age and disability spectrum.

Intermediate - This presentation is intended for behavior analysts and related professionals with experience and/or interest in programming and intervention in support of improved outcomes for adults with ASD and ID.

Interbehaviorism has a long history in behavior analysis. The developer of interbehaviorism, J.R. Kantor, advocated for a thoroughly naturalistic approach to both the philosophy of science and the science of psychology. In 1937 Kantor founded The Psychological Record, with B. F. Skinner serving as the founding editor of the journal’s experimental department. Kantor did not conduct experimental research, but rather focused on developing the theoretical and philosophical foundation for a comprehensive natural science of psychology more broadly. While interbehavioral thinking has persisted and influenced research and scholarship around the world, Kantor’s work has at the same time remained less well-known in a discipline that values empirical research over theoretical coherence. Some researchers have even dismissed the interbehavioral perspective specifically, due to its alleged lack of utility in working towards successful action in applied/clinical areas. Interest in interbehavioral thinking continues, however, and interestingly perhaps especially among those close to applied research and practice. This presentation provides a brief overview of this history, and in particular draws attention to the current interest in interbehaviorism and its potential future.

In response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, schools across the world have been closed intermittently over the course of several months as an emergency measure to prevent spreading of the infection. During school closures, many students received instruction remotely either in entirety or under a hybrid model involving a mixture of on-campus and distance learning models. For some students, skill deficits may serve as a barrier to accessing instruction under these conditions. In the current study, special education teachers were surveyed to learn more about their methods for assessing and establishing preparedness for distance learning instruction with their students. A tool for assessment of technology-based prerequisite skills for distance learning was developed and administrated to special education students ranging from 1-12 grades. These data were utilized to create acquisition programs for specific skills hypothesized to impact student independence and engagement during distance learning sessions. These acquisition programs were then introduced with secondary level special education students. Results related to student assessment, acquisition of prerequisite skills, as well as social validity measures for teachers and students will be shared.

Goal setting is a well-established strategy for improving educational performance. Further, it is well documented that specific goals produce higher performance than goals that encourage a learner to “do your best.” This study examined the effectiveness of setting daily session-improvement goals across individual programs for learners diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). During the initial intervention phase, participants were provided a loose set of criteria to set goals for the learners they work with in order to compare the number of goals met to the number of programs run. Each of the participants collected daily data indicating each of these frequencies. Data were evaluated during staff meetings, where feedback was delivered and more specific criteria established for setting goals that resulted in an optimal percentage of goals met. Finally, these data were compared to the frequency of data-based decisions made that resulted in forward progress for learners in our clinic in order to evaluate optimal frequencies of data-based decisions for our staff.

Culturo-behavioral science is rapidly evolving into a scientific enterprise aimed, in part, at understanding relations between behavior and cultural selection processes. In this enterprise, cultural selection processes are largely seen as occurring through metacontingencies in which selecting events increase the likelihood that culturants (i.e., interlocking behavioral contingencies, or IBCs, and the aggregate products they produce) reoccur. As such, metacontingencies do not only increase the likelihood of observing particular responses of multiple individuals but functional relations between such responses. While verbal behavior has been shown to be important for facilitating metacontingent control of culturants, how verbal behavior or activity participates in establishing functional relations within IBCs remains elusive. The purpose of this symposium is to outline two different approaches towards analyzing the contribution of verbal behavior in metacontingency interactions: (1) by conducting descriptive analyses of referential interactions that occur between participants and (2) by limiting communicative interactions between participants and making selecting events contingent on one individual responding to stimuli that only other individuals contact. Although these approaches are distinct, they both can inform how relevant verbal processes are to establish functional relations within IBCs. Experiments utilizing each approach--and their implications for conceptualizing cultural selection—will be discussed.

The main unit of analysis in metacontingencies are interlocking-behavioral contingencies (IBCs) measured by their aggregate product (AP) (Glenn et al. 2016). The experimental literature has demonstrated selection APs by factors external to the group (also known as “cultural consequences”). By contrast, social interactions occurring inside IBCs have received little examination, although they constitute a key element to understand different types of social dynamics. In this study interindividual performance and verbal interactions of individuals inside IBCs were examined. Communication between participants in dyads was experimentally manipulated such that some dyads wore noise-cancelling headphones while working together and other group of dyads used headsets to talk to each other during the experimental session. Verbal interactions were measured using video/audio digital recordings. Three type of instructions were presented to dyads to assess their effects on dyads performance under ambiguous circumstances throughout the task. Instructions varied in their degree of ambiguity in each condition: high (A), medium (B), and low-explicit rules (C). The order of rule presentation was alternated between groups. Our finding demonstrated significant differences in interpersonal performance between groups (verbal dyads vs nonverbal dyads). Overall, dyads spent more time engaging in cooperative verbal interactions than in any other type of verbal interaction, and similar acquisition patterns of these interactions were observed across dyads. The implications of these findings for futures studies related to the analysis of metacontingency will be discussed.

Experimental analyses of metacontingencies assess how interlocking behavioral contingencies (IBCs) that produce aggregate products are selected and replicated as a single, functional unit. Turn-based matching-to-sample procedures (TBMTS) can be used to examine metacontingent selection. In TBTMS, pairs of participants take turns selecting comparison stimuli in the presence of particular sample stimuli. Dependency relations are arranged so that, on each trial, one participant responds in the presence of a stimulus selected by another. Rewards ae delivered based on correspondence (i.e., when one participant responds to a stimulus only shown to the another) and noncorrespondence (i.e., when on participant responds to a stimulus other than that only shown to another). When correspondence produces more points, participants typically select the same comparison stimuli as their partner across all sample stimuli and demonstrate symmetrical responding. While this task produces data that are interpretable from a metacontingency perspective, it also can be interpreted in terms of verbal processes. This presentation will elaborate on data collected utilizing TBMTS from a metacontingencies and molar operant contingencies and discuss the implications of each for future experimental analyses of culture, the importance of verbal behavior, and creating sustainable cultural change.